The Importance of effective political communications and how to build Essay

The Importance of effective political communications and how to build and managed country reputation through effective political communications - Essay Example nd if the communication process is to be effective then the needs of the citizens to communicate on various issues in order to have them addressed must be fulfilled. This requires then a level of professionalism from both the political organisations and the journalist – the two institutions which are critical to the political communication system. McNamara (2010) definition of effective is worth mentioning here – ‘reaching the citizenry in such a way as to impact their views in a positive way.’ Numerous communication theories have been put forward in order to analyse communication in the political sphere. Grunig and Hunt (1984) has put forward four models of PR, three of which emphasise one way communication and a two-way symmetrical model which is the ideal situation for a democracy and thus for effective political communication,. This model employs communication for the purpose of negotiating with publics, resolving conflicts, and for the promotion of mutual understanding and respect between the organisation and its publics. Present day political communication seems to be lacking to a great extent in this regard. This paper looks at the work of a number of writers/researchers who have done work in the area of political communication. Each of them has put forward their theory on political communication. The ones which are of interest are introduced and critiqued separately. The paper also provides a comparative analysis of their work. Blumler and Gurevitch (1995) in their book ‘The Crisis of Public Communication’ looks at the issues affecting effective political communication. Blumler and Gurevitch (1995) attribute this crisis to four sources: the drive by the two political communication institutions – politicians and journalists, to understand the strategies used by each other in order to make adjustments in response to each others actions; and Blumler and Gurevitch (1995) link the communicators and the audience in a network of expectations

The Effects of Psychoactive Substance Abuse on Young People Essay

The Effects of Psychoactive Substance Abuse on Young People - Essay Example Drug and alcohol abuse have adverse effects on the mental health of young people, impacting on their ability to learn and to progress normally in the education system. Cannabis, for example, impairs cognitive development, in particular associative processes and recall, and affects the intoxicated student's ability to concentrate (WHO 2006), while cocaine consumption results in a range of cerebral complications, ranging from hallucination to paranoia (Wikipedia 2006). Many studies reveal a correlation between drug/alcohol abuse and poor grades, as well as with other behavior that inhibit learning, making substance abuse one of the top problems in youth education today. Psychoactive substance abuse also has a negative impact on the body. Both cannabis and alcohol impair psychomotor performance and visual perception, resulting in many fatal motor vehicle accidents, as well as complications such as seizures, and lung, kidney and brain damage (WHO 2006).

Contemporary Management Issues Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 1

Contemporary Management Issues - Essay Example The company’ s business is a large-scale business accounting almost all of the country’s natural gas supply and for more than 70% of its crude oil productions (Petroleum Development Oman, 2014). In order to perform its operational activity at more than 5,000 producing wells the company employs about 6  000 people and works with more than 35, 000 contractors (Petroleum Development Oman, 2014). Taking into consideration this type of business and the number of people involved, the company has extremely huge social and environmental responsibility for its activity. There are two key objectives of the assignment. The first one is to provide an overview of the theories of business ethics to stakeholders and critical analysis of how Petroleum Development Oman Llc develops and sustains business ethics and how the company conducts business ethics to its stakeholders (including shareholders, employees, customers, suppliers, and government). The second objective is to review different elements of corporate social responsibility (CSR) and to provide critical evaluation of the rewards/benefits of CSR obtains the Petroleum Development Oman Llc while implementing CSR. There are many various definitions and interpretations of the term â€Å"business ethics†. One of the most common interpretations is that business ethics or values set the definitions of good and bad, right or wrong in business environment (Payne, & Landry 2006). Further, these definitions become generally accepted standards in the business context (Gavai 2010). Thomas Garrett explains that business ethics is â€Å"concerned primarily with the relationship of business goals and techniques to specific human needs† (cited by Gavai 2010, 4). There are recognized two traditional theories of business ethics: Raiborn and Payne principles and the Kantian analysis (Payne, & Landry 2006). The idea of the

How is recycling affecting interior design Essay

How is recycling affecting interior design - Essay Example inputs (lowering the consumption of raw materials and energy) and outputs (waste that goes to landfills) of a production system (Letsrecycle.Com 2006). A study by the Technical University of Demark studied 55 products in household rubbish, comparing the effects of burning, burying and recycling them. The results proved that recycling was the most efficient way to do with the waste more than 80% of the times, providing a worthwhile energy savings in comparison with production from raw materials: 95% economy for aluminium, 70% fro plastics and 40 % for paper (Economist 2007). Since 1970s recycling is associated with the notions of sustainable design (also green or ecological design) and sustainable community development. According to Green Supply Line (2007), â€Å"Sustainable design is a comprehensive, holistic approach to creating products and systems that are environmentally benign, socially equitable, and economically viable: environmentally, such that the design offers obvious or measurable environmental benefits; socially, so that it fills the needs of everyone involved in its production, use and disposal or reuse; and economically, so that the design is competitive in the marketplace.† Pellow, Schnaiberg and Weinberg (2000) suggest that recycling has become a model of sustainable community development while it has environmental, economic and social benefits, where economic one plays, perhaps, the crucial role (p.7-8). Today recycling is one of the major requirements of sustainable design and sustainable community development. For instance, Santa Monica Green Building Program names â€Å"recycling of demolition & construction waste in construction contracts† and specification of recycled products per EPA purchasing guidelines among its requirements to materials and envelope and space planning (Santa Monica.org). Recycling, together with efficient reduction and reuse of resources (materials and energy) is underlined as one of the major principles in most of the

Online Assignment 5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Online Assignment 5 - Essay Example This implies that apart from a professional relationship, a personal relationship develops. 2a. The issue of ethics arises in dual relationship but at times the dual relationship may occur out of sheer coincidence. This is circumstantial multiple role played by the professional and this arises out of misinterpretation. In small rural communities the psychologists often have a holistic view of the clients and this often leads to overlapping of social and business relationship that affects the psychologists’ family (Friedman, 2000). Dual relationship can occur when they are integral to the profession. An individual has to play structured multiple professional roles and is prevalent in counselor education and supervision. The supervisor can hold multiple roles as a mentor or advisor. This implies that the nature of both the roles is professional. In such a situation there is no conflict of interest and the relationship is seen upon as complimentary. However, when dual relationships become necessary, the professional must be conscious of the possible harm it could cause. One role can create conflict in this relationship. In their role as evaluators or in providing therapy service to the students, problems could arise due to shift in professional relationships. This could happen when the supervisor counseling a student develops a personal relationship that could be sexual or romantic in nature. In such a situation there are chances that the professional could exploit the student or the client. A professor (female) during the course of discussion with a female student stated that she missed having a man in her life as she had been widowed some years ago (Gottlieb, 1993). The student called up the professor a week later and offered to introduce her to a man who could be interesting. The professor instantly agreed but upon consultation with another colleague the next day, declined to meet the man. 2b. Circumstantial multiple role, present

Nelson Mandela Spiritual Biography Essay Example for Free

Nelson Mandela Spiritual Biography Essay Nelson Mandela challenged the status quo in many ways weather it was done politically, socially, or personally, in order to achieve such high goals Mandela paid many great personal expenses. Before the acts of Nelson Mandela, the country of South Africa was broken; it was plunged in a deep racism with the election in 1948. The regime of 1948 committed the crime of Apartheid which is defined as the action of committing inhumane acts of a character similar to other crimes against humanity which is committed in the context of an institutionalized regime which systematically oppresses and dominates one racial group over any other racial group or groups and commits it with the intention of maintaining that regime. Mandela would oppose the ideas of this regime and eventually play a major role in the elimination of the apartheid they worked in evil to create. In his autobiography Nelson Mandela describes his trials and tribulations on his journey to the freedom of South Africa hence the name of the book â€Å" Long Walk To Freedom†. From the time when he was young, Mandela was raised to be a leader. Nelson Mandela belongs to a cadet branch of the Thembu dynasty, which reigns in the Transkei region of South Africas Eastern Cape Province. When Mandela was nine, his father died of tuberculosis and the regent, Jongintaba, became his guardian. He attended many schools including The Wesleyan College in Healdtown, this is where most of the Thembu royalty went to college. Jongintaba conditioned Mandela to be a leader and these characteristics’ show during his presidency. However this leadership training was cut short by the fact that so many people of royalty face, arranged marrage. Shortly after leaving Fort Hare, Jongintaba announced to Mandela and Justice (the regents son and heir to the throne) that he had arranged marriages for both of them. He fled to Johannesburg in order to avoid being forcefully married and what he found was a country whose national flag was in the dictionary next to the word apartheid. Determined to change the status quo he embarked on a political campaign and joined the ANC and began practicing terrorism. He was arrested and sentenced to life in prison. He was released twenty seven years later by making the promise that he would stop participating in terrorism. He went back to the ANC and used it as his political party to run for office. He won due to the fact that he had won the right to vote for many of the black South Africans who supported him. He unified the country, most notably through rugby, but also helped to raise many of the blacks, whale not neglecting the whites, out of poverty. He is still an influential character to this day, and leads many humanitarian organizations. He is currently in the hospital due to medical troubles but he is expected to make a recovery. Starting in his early life Nelson Mandela always challenged the status quo. During this time he escaped an arranged marriage and thus beginning a life of meaningful defiance, defiance that would improve the lives of all those around him, defiance that lift a race from the depths of poverty, defiance that would end apartheid. He began his political campaign through peaceful protesting taking from the ideas of Gandhi with peaceful non- violent protest. This is shown by â€Å" I cannot pinpoint the a moment when I became politicized, when I knew that I would spend my life in the liberation struggle. To be African in South Africa means that one is politicized from the moment of ones birth , weather one acknowledges it or not.† (Long Walk to Freedom 208). He joined the ANC and on December 5 1956. Shortly after Mandela and 150 others were protesting non- violently and were arrested and charged with treason, however all of the defendants received acquittals. Mandela realized that he would need more aggressive tactics in order to end apartheid. He defied the 1948 regime which supported and strengthened apartheid in South Africa, exemplified by a biography of Nelson Mandela â€Å" The NP seized the political initiative in 1948 and retained it into the early 1950s, pushing through its agenda of apartheid legislation without seeming to pay any heed, let alone making any compromises, to the political forces arranged against it.† (Nelson Mandela 46). This quote exemplifies why Mandela abandoned his non- violent means, because the regime had total support from the white population and would not change its views in any way. In 1961 Mandela became the leader of the armed wing of the ANC and continued his defiance by violent means. Mandela described the move to armed struggle as a last resort; Due to the fact that the oppression and violence from the government was increasing despite his best efforts, this convinced Mandela that even with many more years of non-violent protest against apartheid, he could not eliminate apartheid non-violently. And in June 1961, Mandela sent a letter to South African newspapers warning the government, that if they did not meet their demands, the Umkhonto we Sizwe would embark on a campaign of sabotage. The letter demanded the government accept a call for a national constitutional convention. The demands were not met by the government and beginning on 16 December 1961, the Umkhonto we Sizwe with Mandela as its leader, launched a bombing campaign against government targets with the first action of the campaign being the bombing of an electricity sub –station. In total, over the next eighteen months, the Umkhonto we Sizwe would initiate dozens more acts of sabotage and bombings. This is shown by his quote â€Å"I do not deny that I planned sabotage. I did not plan it in a spirit of recklessness nor because I have any love of violence. I planned it as a result of a calm and sober assessment of the political situation that had arisen after many years of tyranny, exploitation and oppression of my people by the whites.† (Nelson Mandela). This exemplified his true defiance of apartheid, that he was willing to corrupt his values to achieve a goal. Nelson Mandela did not follow the status quo by any means during these years of his life. His trial also exemplifies how he did not follow the status quo. He tried to use his trial to fight apartheid but this argument did not abide so well with the white judge who was appointed by the 1948 administration. In the end he was found guilty of many crimes as stated in â€Å" Crimes Charged: (1) The commission of acts of sabotage together with the communist party; (2) conspiracy to aid or procure wrongful acts concerning the recruitment of persons for training in the preparation and use of explosives for committing acts of violence, conspiracy to commit acts of guerilla warfare, acts of assistance to military units of foreign countries invading South Africa, and acts of participation in violent revolution; (3) the execution of the common purpose of committing the acts set out above; (4) soliciting money in South Africa and abroad and disbursing those funds in the interests of their campaign† ( Great World Trials 347). Although this quote may be long and difficult to read, it is indicative evidence for what they are truly imprisoning Mandela for, to silence his defiance. After his trial and conviction and he was taken to Robben Island where he would truly begin his spiritual journey. Even the prison system in South Africa was segregated and Mandela was a D- Class Prisoner and was only allowed one visit and letter per month. However even though Mandela was in Jail his wife, Winnie Mandela continued defying apartheid shown by â€Å" All the while, Mandela’s wife, Winnie Mandela, who was both his loyal supported and respected representative on the outside, spent the decades protesting and periodically being tried, imprisoned, and banned for her political activity.†( Great World Trials 352). Mandela began a journey of knowledge gaining a Bachelor of laws from the University of London via their external program shown by â€Å" I was still in the midst of perusing my L.L.B. at the Universi ty of London. I had started studying for the L.L.B. at the University of London during the Rivonia Trial† ( Long Walk to Freedom 504). This clearly exemplifies Mandela’s defiance, that even though they locked him up he still perused his goal of ending apartheid which he found to be best served by furthering his education and gaining a law degree. Mandela also read poetry growing very fond of a poem by William Earnest Henley called Invictus. These beautiful words inspired him to not be revengeful towards the whites who put him in prison but rather to seek unity. Mandela was eventually released from jail on February 2, 1990 after he made a deal with President F. W. de Klerk who had gotten rid of the ban on ANC and other organizations like it. Upon his release from prison he rejoined the leadership of the ANC now lead by Chris Hani. Mandela gained control of the ANC in April of 1993 following the assassination of Chris Hani. By then the ANC and other anti- apartheid organizations had won the rights of the black population to vote. Mandela used the ANC as his political party to commit the ultimate act of defiance, run for the presidency of South Africa. The ANC won 62 percent of the votes in the election, and Mandela was inaugurated as South Africa’s first black president on May 10 1994. Nelson Mandela viewed this as the beginning of his journey and not the time to relax shown by â€Å" I have walked that long road to freedom. I have tried not to falter; I have made missteps along the way. But I have discovered the secret that after climbing a great hill, one only finds that there are many more hills to climb. I have taken a moment here to rest, to steal a view of the glorious vista that surrounds me, to look back on the distance I have come. But I can rest only for a moment, for with freedom comes responsibilities, and I dare not linger, for my long walk has not yet ended.† ( Long Walk to Freedom 640). Mandela had committed the ultimate act of defiance of running for president and came out victorious, the white residents of South Africa was in for some payback for imprisoning him for 27 years, at least that was the general idea carried by the white population when Mandela was elected, but Mandela had other plans. When Nelson Mandela first walked into his office as president he found many of the people who worked in his office, such as secretaries, packing up their things in anticipation of Mandela firing them. Mandela called them into his office and many thought that they were about to get fired. Instead Mandela asked them to put aside their political views and asked all of the old employees to stay and work with him. In doing this he is once again defying the status quo, which was that he would seek revenge on the whites for his imprisonment, but instead of revenge he sought unity. He unified the country in many ways most notably through rugby. He now asked others not to follow the status quo. He asked to blacks to back the previously hated Springboks, the South African Rugby Team. A movie named Invictus tells the story of this as the underdog South African team lead by the captain of the rugby team Francois Pienaar won against the favored New Zealand rugby team. This is shown by â€Å" When he took the field in a rugby uniform after South Africa won the 1995 World Cup, the virtually all white crowd chanted, â€Å" Nelson! Nelson!†.† (Nelson Mandela 142. During his reign as president Nelson Mandela virtually ended apartheid in South Africa ushering in a new era for prosperity for the country. In all Nelson Mandela was a very influential human rights activist and his work can be categorized to be as great as the work of Gandhi or Martin Luther King Jr. due to the basic human rights that he rightfully gave to so many South Africans. He also is an influential leader to this day and has his name on many charitable organizations. He defied the status quo of a country and won. In the End these words given the title of Invictus by William Ernest Henley truly reflect Nelson Mandela’s desire for unity and his capacity for forgiveness. Out of the night that covers me, Black as the Pit from pole to pole, I thank whatever gods may be For my unconquerable soul. In the fell clutch of circumstance I have not winced nor cried aloud. Under the bludgeonings of chance My head is bloody, but unbowed. Beyond this place of wrath and tears Looms but the Horror of the shade, And yet the menace of the years†¨Finds, and shall find, me unafraid. It matters not how strait the gate, How charged with punishments the scroll. I am the master of my fate: I am the captain of my soul. Works Cited Mandela, Nelson, Wyk Chris Van, and Paddy Bouma. Long Walk to Freedom. New York: Flash Point/Roaring Brook, 2009. Print. Maltz, Leora. Nelson Mandela. San Diego: Greenhaven, 2004. Print. Knappman, Edward W. Great World Trials. Detroit: Gale Research, 1997. Print. Invictus 2009. Perf. Morgan Freeman and Matt Damon. Warner Bros., 2009. BrainyQuote. Xplore, n.d. Web. 17 Dec. 2012.

Impact of Organizational Culture on Strategic Advantage

Impact of Organizational Culture on Strategic Advantage Impact of Organizational Culture on the achievement of Strategic Advantages of ERP in Pakistan ABSTRACT This study looks at the relationship that organizational culture has with the achievement of Strategic advantages from implementing Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) software. A sample of 30 organizations that implemented ERP was used to test the hypotheses. A competing values approach to measuring organizational culture was used to quantitatively measure an organizations culture profile. The results show that the organizations culture is significantly related to the achievement of strategic advantages from implementing ERP 1. Introduction This paper studies the relationship between Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and organizational Culture. ERP is buzz word now days with every company implementing from different models coined by different vendors in order to stay in the competition and to ensure that its operations are efficient and effective. Through ERP the organizations are able to achieve low costs of procurement, production, inventory distribution etc hence streamlines whole value chain that includes various primary secondary activities. These are pivotal in making any organization successful and taking it ahead of competition. Furthermore higher turnovers, reduced cycle times, inventory levels and financial operations can be given a face-lift to meet the challenges of the modern global recession the world is observing. ERP refer to the integrated way of carrying out all or major / core operations of the company. Organizations now regard ERP as a vital tool for the enhancement of their business operations by implementing most of its functions if not all of their processes under a single information system in an endeavor to benefit from the strategic advantages that ERP offers. Organizational culture is a vital notion in organizational analysis. In past few years, there has been a lot of focus on the development of organizational cultures that are conducive of achieving better results and higher performance motivational levels of the employees. Organizational culture can be described as an abstract composite of assumptions, values, and artifacts shared by its members [that] can be reliably represented by the valueswhich drive its members attitudes and activities (Howard, 1998, p. 234). The model proposed in this study advocates that there is an essential connection between an organizations culture and the achievement of strategic advantages from ERP. A Competing Values approach to measuring organizational culture is used to provide an empirical measure for an organizations culture (Quin and Spreitzer, 1991). The competing values approach provides a profile of four cultural archetypes occupied by a particular organization. These archetypes are group, hierar chical, developmental and rational cultures. The combination of the archetypes describes the organizations culture profile. The primary question this study attempts to answer is how does Organizational cultural profiles affects the achievement of strategic advantages of ERP. 2. Literature review: This segment will appraise the pertinent Literature touching ERP and Organizational Culture. 2.1 Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) is relatively a new concept however now a days almost every organization ranging from small to large enterprise, devotes a major portion of its developmental budgets on the implementation of ERP software. ERP is not merely software but an approach of carrying out business operations in the modern times where technology plays a decisive role in making an organization a success story or failure. However An ERP software system can be described as a set of integrated business applications, or modules, to carry out most business functions, including inventory control, general ledger accounting, accounts payable, accounts receivable, material requirements planning, order management and human resources, among others. (Martin et al., 1999). ERP is a technique to bring all of an organizations data and IS /IT resources under a single Information system (Oliver, 1999). The author affirms that ERP systems evolved to help organizations manage their information t hrough-out the Company, from the plant to the back office, and or the front office. (Oliver, 1999, pg. 12). ERP intends to integrate its core if not all of an organizations processes under a single ERP system. The processes can be seen in terms of a value chain (Porter, 1985), which connects the suppliers to the organization to the customers. For example, imagine a system where the customer orders a product over the Internet (ecommerce). As soon as the customer places the order, it is automatically sent to the manufacturing department, while at the same time sent to the accounting department for billing- The use of materials by the manufacturing department depletes the stock, therefore a parts order is sent automatically to the supplier when reorder points are reached for replenishment of the stock. In traditional systems, time would be required for the sending of the messages between departments, for the reordering of the parts, and the billing of the customer. ERP intends to automate these systems to achieve a number of strategic advantages- Implementation of ERP software can allow an organization certain strategic advantages (Radding, 1999, Stein 1998). The literature tells us that organizations can benefit from greater flexibility, increased efficiency (Radding, 1999), improved communication, Lower operating costs, increased revenue (Oliver, 1999). Reduced cycle times, better collaboration and higher profit margins (Stein, 1998). These strategic advantages affect not only the organization, but can affect all members of an organizations value chain. ERP is a system that seeks to unite all of a value chains disparate processes. An organizations value chain represents all of the different processes that involve organizational resources and that are needed to support the organizations operations. Porter(1985) developed a model of an organizations value chain. This model of the value chain contains 9 processes; 5 primary processes, and 4 support processes. The organizations primary processes involve the production and delivery of the organizations products to the consumer (Bergeron, 1991). The processes involved in the primary activity are inbound logistics, operations, outbound logistics, marketing and sales, and customer service. The organizations secondary business processes represent the support processes for the primary activities and are, administrative coordination and support, human resource management, technology development, and procurement of resources. Implementation of ERP systems where carried a number of strategic nature of benefits, on the other hand it bears extreme risks. The growing numbers of Unsuccessful stories have compelled managers to take a deep look into the causes of it. ERP tries to push the logic that the system has which is conflicting with the Business. It may sometimes also lead to integration where decentralization fragmentation may best suite the organization. Furthermore, ERP may force the organization to go for generic processes than customization. Therefore ERP has to go along with technology and culture (Davenport, 1998). In contemporary organizations the data generation takes place at scattered places and the magnitude of the data is huge. Therefore a real time access to the data becomes imperative for the data in deal with such complex nature of information. ERP aligns all the information into various functions like finance, operations, sales, Customer relation etc subject to the nature of business an organization is into. Enterprise resource planning system (ERP), as a type III IS innovation, has strategic Significance for the organization due to their integration into the core business processes or strategies can directly impact the firms performance (Swanson 1994; Sambamurthy et al. 2003; Sample 1998). Consequently, many companies have started to develop strategy focusing on information technologies, with ERP adoption being a critical thrust (Bharadwaj 2000; Powell and Dent-Micallef 1997; Robey et al. 2002). on the other hand, whereas the firm is on the lookout for competitive advantages by adopting this sophisticated information system, the tangible experiences have reveal ambiguity – some organization are able to reap the true benefits of ERP whereas on the other hand majority of the firms face losses and failed to achieve the desired level of strategic and tactical benefits. (Scott and Vessey 2002). According to the survey conducted by Deloitte, the success rate of ERP implementation is le ss than 20%. Hence it is important for researcher to unlock the mystery of benefit realization in ERP adoption and theorize the important predictors effect on ERP implementation practice (Brown and Vessey 2003). Other than strategic benefit, ERP also contributes toward making an organizational structure more flatter flexible, enabling organization to streamline their management structures and more democratic organization. On the other hand it also involve the centralization of control over information and the standardization of processes, which are attributes more consistent with hierarchical command and control organization with uniform cultures (Davenport, 1998). 2.2 Organizational culture: Culture can be seen from a number of different levels. Of interest to business are the concepts of national culture and organizational culture. National culture is important due to a more global economy where communication technicalities have begun to evolve. It is also important to the study of information systems technology and management. For example, Watson et al. (1994) looked at national culture as king a dimension, in a study looking at Group Support Systems success. This experimental study involved looking at the differences between groups from the U.S. and Singapore. For the majority of the business Literature on culture the level of analysis has dropped to the organization. The importance of studying an organizations culture is, like ERP and BPR, a fairly new concept- An organizations culture can be defined by a number of constructs, such as the symbols, language, ideology, beliefs, rituals, and myths that affect an individuals behavior (Pettigrew, 1979). According to Pettigrew (1979), the culture constructs exist to provide some form of commitment to the established order. Hofstede et al. (1990) proposes a model of culture that is made up of values and practices. The practices reflect member beliefs about symbols, heroes and myths. In an exploratory analysis, Hofstede et aI. (1990) found three factors affecting the values, yet, the core of organizational culture was represented by six dimensions of organizational practices. The dimensions represent opposing ideologies as to what constitutes proper practices. Using the dimensions of organizational practices, Hofstede (1998) identified 3 distinct subcultures within 131 different work groups. The three subcultures represented include a professional subculture, an administrative subculture, and a cus tomer interface subculture. Quinn and Rohrbaugh (1983) developed a quantitative measure of organizational effectiveness, which was later successfully used to study organization culture (see Kalliath et al., 1999, Howard, 1998, Quinn and Spreitzer, 199 1, Zammuto and Krakower, 199 1, Yeung et al., 1991). Quinn and Rohrbaugh (1983) exploratory study revealed that organizational effectiveness cm be represented by three distinct dimensions, a focus dimension (internal vs. external point of view), a structure dimension (flexibility vs. control orientation) and a means vs. ends dimensions. The authors call the resulting approach the Competing Values Approach to measuring organizational culture. The model in figure 2 represents the competing values approach. In figure one, each quadrant represents an ideal type of culture. A particular organization need not be classified exclusively as having one type of culture, but can be considered as containing elements from the four culture types, yet one type may be dominant (Quinn and Spreitzer,1991, Cameron and Freeman, 1991, Yeung et al., 1991). Each culture type is measured using four items, which are aggregated to achieve a culture profile- The core values of the Group culture are belonging, trust and participation, which are motivated by factors of attachment, cohesiveness and membership (Denison and Spreitzer, 1991). Like the group culture, the developmental culture also emphasis flexibility but focuses its attention on the external environment. Productivity, performance, goal fulfillment and achievement are the important f actors for the rational culture. These cultures emphasize the pursuit and attainment of well-defined objectives. Finally, for the hierarchical culture, the focus is on the logic of the internal Organization and the emphasis is on stability- (Denison and Spreitzer, 1991, pg. 6) As the authors state, the motivating factors for this quadrant include security, order, rules, and regulations. A number of studies have been done, looking at and validating this framework. Quinn and Spreitzer (1991) performed a multitrait-multi-method analysis as well as multidimensional scaling on two competing values instruments (one using an ipsative scale measure, the other using a likert type scale measure), The authors found evidence for both convergent and discriminant validity. Zammuto and Krakower (1991) looked for relationships between culture and other organizational variables including, centralization, moral, administrator credibility, conflict, strategic orientation and culture strength- Authors state that evidence for construct validity exists due to the correlation of the competing values measure of cultur e and the other variables stated. Yeung et al. (1991) studied the competing values measure of culture in relation to organizational performance, culture strength and human resource practices- In a cluster analysis, the authors found that organizations from their study could be classified into 5 distinct culture types (or profiles). More recently, the competing values framework was again validated in two more studies (see Howard, 1998, Kalliath, 1999). The next section will look at some of the literature on assimilation and organizational culture change. Denison (1996) gave another perspective of culture by trying to research whether organizational culture and organizational climate were two different points of views or just a matter of perception. He further said that there are similarities differences at the time same time. Measurement of organizational culture is usually carried through qualitative analysis and deals with individuals set of beliefs, shared norms perception. Organizational climate on the other hand is measured through quantitative methods like questionnaire and print outs etc. Other factors also helped to differentiate these two topics in the literature. Culture researchers were more anxious with the progress of social systems over time (Mirvis Sales, 1990; Mohr, 1982; Pettigrew, 1979; Rohlen, 1974; Schein, 1985, 1990; Van Maanen, 1979), whereas climate researchers were generally less concerned with evolution but more concerned with the impact that organizational systems have on groups and individuals (Ekvall, 1987; Joyce Slocum, 1984; Koyes DeCotiis, 1991). The research also addressed to where does this organizational culture climate originates. Chatman (1989) says â€Å"In order for researchers to understand and predict behavior, they must consider both person and situation factors and how these factors interact. Even though organization researchers have developed interactional models, many have overemphasized either person or situation components and most have failed to consider the effects that persons have on situations. Using a Q-sort methodology, individual value profiles are compared to organizational value profiles to determine fit and to predict changes in values, norms, and behaviors†. By this we understand that both the organization individuals beliefs norms compliments each other and have an impact on over organizational environment which people and policies constitutes. Therefore the significance of any single factor can never be underestimated while evaluating the type of profile organization maintains in terms of its culture. Organizational effectiveness have long been a very vital area for the researchers to determine the causal relationship of organizational effectiveness higher level productivity with several variables. Among them organizational culture have well been under the consideration by the researchers. The increase in the research The intensification of research on organizational effectiveness has led to the formulation of theories about factors within an organization that can make a difference in performance. Organizational culture is one such variable that has received much attention in organizational behavior literature (Amsa 1986; Hofstede 1986; Hofstede, Neuijen, Ohayv and Sanders 1990; Jelinek, Smircich and Hirsch 1983; Kilman, Saxton and Serpa 1985; Ouchi 1981; Owens 1987; Schein 1990; Trice and Beyer 1984). This attention is mainly because researchers has postulated that cultural factors play a key role in determining levels of organizational outcomes. A common hypothesis about this r ole suggests that if an organization possesses strong culture by exhibiting a well-integrated and effective set of specific values, beliefs, and behavior patterns, then it will perform at a higher level of productivity (Dennison 1984). The development of theory to guide the definition of organizational culture, therefore, is of primary importance to improving organizational performance, espe- cially because the variables which comprise culture have been postulated to be under the control of organizational leaders (Deal and Kennedy 1982, Ouchi 1981, Owens 1987, Siepert and Likert 1973). Despite concern with achieving improved organizational productivity through fo- cusing on the development of cohesive organizational culture, determining the parameters of this construct has been problematic. The literature on organizational culture taps essential ideas, but the theory and technology to utilize the theory in improving organizations have remained fuzzy (Mackenzie 1986). As Trice and Be yer (1984) have argued, previous research on organizational culture has tended to focus on single, discrete elements of culture, while ignoring the multidimensional nature of culture, that is, a construct composed of several intimately interrelated variables (Schein 1990). Another problem has been that researchers are still not sure whether the association between culture and organizational performance reflects a cause-effect type of relationship (Saffold 1988). In fact, researchers have not really identified what specific variables comprise an effective organizational culture, nor have they provided convincing empirical evidence to suggest that if leaders in organizations increased the amount of time and quality of energy devoted to developing a particular type of organizational culture, then an organization would perform at a higher level of productivity (Barney 1986). There is presently little agreement, therefore, about what the concept of organizational culture means or how it should be observed and measured (Schein 1990). Because of the lack of agreement concerning theoretical formulations about organizational culture, its delineation, and its possible relationship to performance outcomes, no significant body of empirical research exists. Instead, researchers have primarily focused on defining and describing the variables of organizational culture and cautiously suggested a possible relationship between organizational culture and outcomes (Owens 1987). As Mackenzie (1986) argues, organizational culture as a concept may be a useful means of assessing the congruency of the organizations goals, strategies and task organization, and resulting outcomes. Without valid and reliable measures of the critical aspects of organizational culture, however, state- ments about its importance and effect on performance will continue to be based on speculation, personal observations, and case studies (Uttal 1983). As a consequence, management strategies and programs to cre ate organizational change through under- standing the organizations environment and strategically manipulating aspects of its culture will continue to be poorly focused and difficult to implement and evaluate.